73 blanket
Under the Wildlife Amendment Act (2000) NHAs are legally protected from damage from the date they are formally proposed for designation.
Proposed Natural Heritage Areas (pNHAs) were published on a non-statutory basis in 1995 but have not since been statutorily proposed or designated.
Proposed Natural Heritage Area (pNHA)
This network of NHAs and pNHAs provides supporting or steppingstone functions to the SAC and SPA network, in particular for species that move outside of SAC and SPA boundaries.
A Nature Reserve is an area of importance to wildlife, which is protected under Ministerial order (Wildlife Acts 1976 and 2000).
National Nature Reserve
National Parks are areas that exist to conserve natural plant and animal communities and scenic landscapes, and which facilitate public access.
National Park
Refuges for Fauna are designated by ministerial order under Section 17 of the Wildlife Act 1976 as amended by Section 28 of the Wildlife (Amendment) Act 2000.
Refuge for Fauna
Wildfowl sanctuaries are areas that have been excluded from the ‘Open Season Order’ so that game birds can rest and feed undisturbed. There are 68 no. sanctuaries in the State12.
Wildfowl Sanctuary
- Source: www.NWPS.ie ** Source: https://data.gov.ie/dataset/nature-reserves-points-of-interest
4.3.3 Natural Habitats and Protected Species
Under the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC), Member States are obliged to undertake
surveillance of the conservation status of their natural habitats and species in the Annexes
and under Article 17, to report to the European Commission (EC) every six years on their
status and on the implementation of the measures taken under the Directive.
The 2019 submission of Ireland’s Article 17 Report13 found 15% of habitats as ‘favourable’:
46% as ‘inadequate’ and 39% as ‘bad’. Some of the key findings to the report include:
Many Irish habitats are in unfavourable status. Although there are positive actions
underway, many habitats are still declining.
The primary perturbations to Irish habitats are from pollution of watercourses, drainage
/ cutting of peat and wetlands, grazing, invasive species, recreation, urbanisation,
fertilizer application and the construction of roads.
12 NPWS (2021). Wildfowl sanctuaries. 13 NPWS (2019). Ireland’s Article 17 Report.
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Nutrient loading is a major pressure for freshwater habitats with many considered
unfavourable. Some marine habitats are considered to be improving.
Raised bogs in Ireland have a ‘bad’ status and they are in a trend of ongoing decline.
4.3.4 The Wildlife Act (Flora and Fauna) and Flora Protection Order (Plant Species)
The Wildlife Act 1976 to 2010 (as amended) is the principal national legislation underpinning
the protection of fauna and flora and nature conservation in Ireland. All bird species, and a
number of animals and flora are afforded protection under the Act. The Act also provides
statutory protection for Natural Heritage Areas (NHAs).
The making of a Flora Protection Order under the Wildlife Act provides protection for nationally
important sites for protected plants.
4.3.5 Salmonid Rivers and Shellfish Areas
Inland Fisheries Ireland (IFI) is the primary body responsible for management of fish habitats,
which is a national resource that needs to be protected.
The Salmonid Regulations (S.I. No. 293 of 1988) designate the waters capable of supporting
salmon (Salmo salar), trout (Salmo trutta), char (Salvelinus) and whitefish (Coregonus) as
protected. In order to sustain these species, rivers must have ‘good’ water quality, allow
upstream movement and provide suitable habitat for spawning.
Shellfish growing areas are found around the coasts of Ireland. These were designated by the
then Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government, having responsibility
for making the most recent shellfish water sites in 2009 (S.I. No. 55 of 2009).
4.3.6 Invasive Species
Invasive species constitute a threat to biodiversity and ecosystems and can have economic
costs.
In Ireland, there are currently 377 no. recorded non-native species and 342 no. non-native
‘potential Invaders’, 66% are considered to have a low impact risk, 21% to have a medium
impact risk and 13% have a high impact risk. The majority of invasive species in Ireland are
plants, however, there is potential for rising trends of invasive vertebrate and invertebrate
species14.
Landowners are responsible for preventing the spread of Japanese Knotweed on their own
land and vigilance is required by all landowners as invasive species can spread quickly across
boundaries.
14 O’Flynn, C., Kelly,J. and Lysaght,L. (2014).
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Invasive species (including aquatic species) in Ireland are controlled under Regulations 49
and 50 of the European Communities (Birds and Natural Habitats) Regulations 2011.
4.3.7 Summary of Future Baseline
Habitats and species will potentially face increasing pressures from future
development within Ireland, with the potential for negative impacts on the wider
ecological network. This may include a loss of habitats and impacts on biodiversity
networks. The potential impacts on biodiversity from climate change are likely to
include changes in habitat, changes in species distribution, changes in hydrology,
changes in ecosystem functioning and a range of others.
Internationally and nationally designated sites are particularly sensitive to air quality
issues. The nature, scale, timing, and duration of some human activities can result in
the disturbance of species at a level that may substantially affect their behaviour, and
consequently affect the long-term viability of their populations.
Ireland is currently experiencing a decline in floral and faunal populations. Biodiversity
is at risk because of habitat loss and damage.
To maintain and improve the condition of biodiversity in the future, it will be important
to not only protect and enhance important habitats but the connections between them,
in addition to delivering net gains through new development areas. It will be crucial to
effectively coordinate the delivery of new infrastructure to ensure that opportunities to
improve green infrastructure and ecological corridors are maximised across Ireland.
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4.4 Population and Human Health
4.4.1 Introduction
Population and human health cover a wide array of topics and consider the presence of
people, their activities, their use of the receiving environment and their wellbeing. Population
growth forecasts and distribution are important to the theme as they indicate pressure on
infrastructure and resources, and potential exposure to pollution and risk. The health and
wellbeing of a population can be affected by any number of environmental pathways,
emissions to air and water being two prime examples. International and national standards of
safety in doses, exposure and risk are adhered to regarding these emissions.
4.4.2 Overview of Population Baseline
According to the National Planning Framework (NPF), there will be roughly an extra one million
people living in Ireland by 2040.
The last census in Ireland was in 201615. The 2016 Census recorded the population of Ireland
to be just over 4.2 million. The population of Ireland has been rising continuously since the
1960’s, resulting in a constant increase in housing, infrastructure, services and facilities. This
is attributed to increasing birth rates, decreasing death rates, an increase in life expectancy
and a decrease in net migration16.
Population density is continually increasing in Ireland, but the biggest growth occurring in
urban areas as the shift from rural to urban continues. Approximately 80% of the population
increase, between 2011 and 2016, was in urban areas.
In April 2021, Ireland’s population surpassed five million people (in April 2021 it was recorded
at 5,011,500, compared to 4,757,976 in 2016)17.
In the 2018 Central Statistics Office (CSO) report ‘Population and Labour Force Projections
2017-2051’18 the report stated the total population of Ireland is predicted to grow somewhere
between 4.74 and 5.6 million amid 2017-2051. The average annual population growth rate for
this period will be between 0.69 and 0.8%, down from the 1.6% growth rate observed during
2006 and 2011 and 0.7% between 2011 and 2016.
Social trends in Ireland also show a rise in the number of private households, with 1,029,084
households in 1991 increasing to 1,195,467 in 2016. In that same period, the average
household size decreased from 3.3 persons per household to 2.75, driven by a fall in family
sizes and a growth in one person households19.
15 The most recent Census in Ireland was April 2022; however, the results are still being processed. 16 CSO (2016). Census of Population 2016. 17 CSO (2021). Population and Migration Estimates, April 2021. 18 CSO (2018). Population and Labour Force Projections 2017-2051. 19 CSO (2018). Population and Labour Force Projections 2017-2051.
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The CSO 2019 National Travel Survey (NTS)20 is a household survey on the travel behaviour
of respondents, carried out using the General Household Survey (GHS) in the fourth quarter21
of 2019.
Nearly seven in every ten (68.5%) persons aged 18 years and over, walk a number of times a
week, with 38.5% walking atleast 5 times a week. Cycling is less frequent with 6.8% of
persons surveyed cycling a number of times a week.
When asked what factors would encourage them to cycle more, ‘improved health’would
encourage one in five (20.5%) to cycle more. Safer cycling routeswas a factor cited by over
three in ten (31.7%) persons who would like to cycle more in the future22.
4.4.2.1 Tourism and Recreation
Tourism has been identified as one of the country’s most important economic sectors and is
credited with playing a significant role in the economic recovery in recent years. Tourism is
particularly important in that it can assist in providing business and employment opportunities
across regions and leads to jobs across the spectrum of skills requirements.
In 2015 the national policy framework for the tourism sector ‘People, Place and Policy:
Growing Tourism to 202523’, was published with a strong focus on developing the sector to
attract ten million overseas visitors, create a range of direct and indirect enterprise
opportunities and to grow employment in the sector to 250,000 persons by 2025.
Tourism and recreation are important to the health and wellbeing of people but also contribute
to the economy at a local and national level.
Cycling is the second biggest activity market in Ireland, with numbers more than trebling over
the last eight-year period. Mainland Europe has always been the most important market for
cycling in Ireland, it’s this market that’s also behind the significant growth seen over the last
number of years24.
Data from Sports Ireland25 indicates there was approximately 259km of greenways in Ireland
in November 2020 with a further 240km of greenway under construction.
In 2018 the Irish Government launched the Strategy for theFuture Development of National
and Regional Greenways26.
20 CSO (2019). National Travel Survey. 21 October to December. 22 CSO (2019). National Travel Survey. 23 DTTS (2019). People, Place and Policy: Growing Tourism to 2025. 24 Fáilte Ireland (2022). Cycling. 25 DTTS (2021). Transport Trends 2020. An Overview of Ireland’s Transport Sector. 26 DTTS (2018). Strategy for the Future Development of National and Regional Greenways.
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4.4.3 Human Health
The health and well-being of Ireland’s population depend on many different factors such as
environmental, individual, social and economic aspects.
Health has the potential to be impacted upon by environmental factors such as air, water or
soil through which contaminants could accumulate and have potential to cause harm through
contact with human beings. Hazards or nuisances to human health can arise due to exposure
to these vectors, for example arising from incompatible adjacent land uses.
There are strong links between income and health, as it is recognised that the sustainability
of current and future economic activity is an important element in protecting and promoting
health and in reducing poverty and deprivation. However, emphasising economic growth
without due regard for social and environmental consequences of such growth can have
negative impacts on health, both for the population as a whole and for groups within the
population.
External factors, e.g., Covid-19, can also have a major impact on human health - both physical
and mental.
The 2020 EPA report ‘Covid-19 and Sheer Wellbeing 2020 -Access to and Use of Blue / Green
Spaces in Ireland during a Pandemic27’ highlighted the socio-economic inequalities in access
to and uses of blue / green spaces in Ireland. Notably, there are significant differences between
socio-economic groups in relation to the numbers of days spent outdoors in the previous week
- the lowest income group reported the lowest average number of days (2.6) spent outdoors
in blue / green spaces.
In 2019 the CSO released their second publication of the ‘Irish Health Survey’, the data for
which was collected in 2019 and early 2020 (pre-pandemic). The survey is based on self-
reported data from persons aged 15 years and over and outlines their view of their health
status28.
The publication of the ‘main results’ provides data and insights on various aspects of health in
Ireland. Some key findings from the survey include29:
Affluent people are more likely to feel their health status is ‘Very good’ or ‘good’ than
people who are disadvantaged - 92% of very affluent persons compared to 78% of
persons who are very disadvantaged.
Over a quarter of persons aged 15 years and over report having a long-lasting
condition, with older persons reporting higher levels.
27 EPA (2020). Covid-19 and Sheer Wellbeing 2020 Access to and Use of Blue/Green Spaces in Ireland during a Pandemic. 28 CSO (2022). Irish Health Survey 2019 - Main Results. 29 CSO (2022). Irish Health Survey 2019 - Main Results.
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Majority of persons (82%) report no limitations in everyday activities due to a health
problem.
Over a fifth (21%) of unemployed persons report some form of mental ill-health
compared to 9% of those in employment.
Prevalence of hospital in-patient admissions rises with age and disadvantage level.
In general, females and older people more likely to use a preventive health service.
Physical activity declines with age and relative disadvantage level.
Younger persons more likely to drink six or more units of alcohol in one sitting.
Over half of persons aged 15 years and over in the State are overweight or obese.
4.4.4 Summary of Future Baseline
There will be roughly an extra one million people living in Ireland by 2040 - National
Planning Framework (NPF).
Population density is continually increasing in Ireland, with the biggest growth
occurring in urban areas.
An increasing population will result in an increase in demand for housing,
infrastructure, services and facilities, including access and demand for sustainable
travel options.
There are strong links between income and health. Affluent people are more likely to
feel their health status is ‘very good’ or ‘good’ than people who are disadvantaged.
Nearly seven in every ten (68.5%) persons aged 18 years and over, walk a number of
times a week, with 38.5% walking atleast 5 times a week. Cycling is less frequent with
6.8% of persons surveyed cycling a number of times a week.
Tourism is an important economic sector in Ireland and is credited with playing a
significant role in the economic recovery in recent years.
Cycling is the second biggest activity market in Ireland, with numbers more than
trebling over the last eight-year period, with potential for growth if supported by
infrastructure.
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4.5 Land, Soils and Geology
4.5.1 Introduction
Land is a limited resource with competition for use, including agriculture, forestry, and other
uses. Land degradation is a global problem, often caused by a combination of factors such as
poor land management and unsustainable development. Land degradation can exacerbate
the impacts of natural disasters30.
The upper most layer of the earth’s surface is generally termed ‘soil’. Soil is composed of
mineral particles, organic matter, water, air and living organisms31.
Geology encompasses the understanding and study of the solid and liquid matter that
constitutes the earth and the processes by which they are formed, moved and changed.
4.5.2 Land
The main source of national-scale information on land cover in Ireland is the EPA CORINE
land cover data series, which is an EU-wide inventory of land cover in 44 no. classes
categorised from satellite photography. The first CORINE dataset was produced in 1990,
thereafter updated by the European Environment Agency (EEA) every six years.
The most recent assessment (CORINE 2018) shows that agriculture is the primary Land-use
Land Cover (LULC) type within Ireland (67.6%), followed by wetlands (14.9%) and forestry
(11%)32. The figure below presents a land cover map of Ireland.
30 European Commission (2022).Soil and Land. 31 European Commission (2022). Soil and Land. 32 EPA (2022). Land-use and Cover.
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4.5.2.1 Agriculture Land, Peatlands, Wetlands and Forestry
As noted above, the main land cover type in Ireland is agricultural land (67.6%). The main
agricultural class is pasture (55.1% national land cover), followed by land occupied by
agriculture (primarily pasture), which is scattered with areas of natural vegetation (6.9%), and
arable land (4.5%)33.
Peatlands and wetlands are the second most widespread land cover type, covering almost
one-fifth (about 17%) of the country, while forested areas cover about 11% of the country.
Peatlands provide a range of functions, including maintaining biodiversity and water quality,
carbon storage and sequestration, agriculture, forestry, water regulation, recreation and flood
attenuation34.
The classes for ‘artificial surfaces and built ground’ encompass features such as urban fabric,
ports, road / rail networks and extraction sites etc. and account for just 2.4% of the country.
4.5.2.2 Coastal Zone and Coastal Protection
The coastal zone is a sensitive and valuable resources, in terms of natural and cultural
heritage, scenic beauty and recreation and is an important economic resource, for the fishing,
leisure and tourism industries. The coastal zone is subject to growing pressures from
increasing population and sometimes conflicting social, economic and recreational uses.
In 2003, the Irish Coastal Protection Strategy Study (ICPSS) was commissioned, with the aim
of providing information to support decision making about how best to manage risks
associated with coastal flooding and coastal erosion. The study was completed in 2013 and
provides strategic current scenario and future scenario (up to 2100) coastal flood hazard maps
and strategic coastal erosion maps35.
GSI is undertaking a new coastal vulnerability mapping initiative. Currently the project is being
carried out on the east coast and will be rolled out nationally. The output will provide for index-
based mapping / visual representation of sensitive areas. Coastal development must take
account of the changing and dynamic nature of the coast and the need for coastal protection.
4.5.3 Soils
There are many ecosystem services that are owed to soils: such as the production of food,
production of biomass, storage, filtration and transformation of nutrients and water, carbon
storage, and contribution to the landscape and cultural environment.
However, land-use change is a major pressure impacting soils. During development, soils can
be disturbed, moved, sealed-in, compacted (e.g., from heavy machinery operations), eroded
33 EPA (2022). Land-use and Cover. 34 EPA (2022). Land-use and Cover. 35 OPW (2019). Irish Coastal Protection Strategy Study.
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or lost to water as a result of the siting of hazardous waste facilities and related infrastructure,
such as road access.
Soil quality in Ireland is considered generally ‘good ‘and Teagasc have indicated that 57% of
soil samples had a pH at or above 6.3, considered optimal for agricultural use while reducing
the need for fertilisers.
The Irish Soil Information System (SIS) is a five-year programme, supported by the EPA36
and Teagasc, to develop a 1:250,000 scale national soil map37. The Irish Soil Information
System adopted a unique methodology combining digital soil mapping techniques with
traditional soil survey application. The figure below presents the SIS map of Ireland.
4.5.3.1 Contaminated Soils
In the absence of mitigation, contaminated materials have the potential to adversely impact
upon human health, water quality and biodiversity including habitats and species. There is
potential for contamination at sites, especially where land-use (such as landfills and Seveso
sites) occurred in the past in the absence of environmental protection legislation.
36 STRIVE Research Programme 2007-2013. 37 EPA (2022). Irish Soil Information System.
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4.5.4 Geology
Geological Survey, Ireland (GSI) provides information on bedrock, subsoil, aquifer
classifications and vulnerability. There are many natural factors that influence the composition
of soils, notably bedrock, climate and topography. Geological understanding and interpretation
are best achieved on the ground at sites where rocks and landforms are displayed.
Bedrock across a large portion of central Ireland is comprised of Carboniferous limestones,
which were deposited in tropical seas 350 million years ago, according to the GSI’s 1:100,000
scale Bedrock Map Series.
Sandstone and shale (varying from 500-300 million years ago) are the next most prevalent
lithology across Ireland, some of which are interspersed with basalt and rhyolite, followed by
Ordovician to Devonian granite intrusions.
Bedrock in the south of Ireland is comprised of Devonian Old Red Sandstones, where thick
layers of sediment were laid down in semi-arid and mountain river systems.
Bedrock in the north-west is comprised of much older Precambrian quartzites, gneisses,
schists and granites, and other igneous intrusive rocks.
4.5.4.1 Geological Heritage
The Irish Geological Heritage (IGH) Programme is a partnership between the GSI and the
National Parks and Wildlife Services (NPWS),that is currently identifying / selecting the best
national sites for Natural Heritage Area (NHA) designation, to represent the country’s geology.
In Ireland, geological heritage is assessed under a framework of 16 themes which cover
different time periods and aspects of geology. Some of these sites have been selected or
recommended for eventual designation as geological NHAs.
The IGH also identifies many sites of national or local geological heritage importance, which
are classed as County Geological Sites (CGS). CGS do not receive statutory protection like
NHA but receive an effective protection from their inclusion in the planning system. Some of
these sites overlap with SACs and some are already proposed Natural Heritage Areas
(pNHAs).
Across Ireland there are currently 1,247 Geological Heritage Sites (includes both audited and
unaudited site boundaries). These sites can be viewed online via the GSI’s dedicated heritage
map viewer38.
4.5.4.2 Landslides
Landslide describes a wide variety of processes that result in the downward and outward
movement of materials such as rock, earth, mud and peat under the force of gravity. The
38 Available at: https://dcenr.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=b245c2bd11a64162a1632ad6bccf8e34&scale=0
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potential impacts of landslides include injury / loss of human life, flooding and pollution to
watercourses and impacts upon aquatic biodiversity.
According to GSI landslide susceptibility mapping, the majority of the country has a low
landslide susceptibility, with the risk rising of moderate to highlandslide susceptibility along
the west coast of Ireland and Dublin and Wicklow Mountains. Many landslide events are
associated with coastal, upland and peatland areas.
4.5.4.3 Minerals and Aggregates
Minerals (e.g., iron and copper) and aggregates (e.g., sand and gravel) occur throughout the
country. The GSI have a suite of data sources available that are useful in planning and
assessing individual projects with regard to the environmental topic(s) of soil and / or material
assets. These include:
Aggregate Potential Mapping.
Quaternary and Physiographic mapping.
National Aquifer and Recharge mapping.
Bedrock mapping.
4.5.5 Summary of Future Baseline
Agriculture is the primary Land-use Land Cover (LULC) type within Ireland (67.6%),
followed by wetlands (14.9%) and forestry (11%)39.
Land-use change is a major pressure impacting soils. Currently, there is no legislation
which is specific to the protection of soil resources. The EU Soil Strategy for
203040 sets out a framework and concrete measures to protect and restore soils and
ensure that they are used sustainably.
There is pressure on land and soils for development and new infrastructure within the
undeveloped areas.
Soil sealingis the covering of the ground by an impermeable material. Soil sealing can
potentially put biodiversity at risk, increase the risk of flooding and prevents natural
drainage.
Impacts on soil - erosion and contamination from intensive land-uses, such as
agriculture and quarrying activities.
Geological heritage sites need to be protected from development.
39 EPA (2022). Land-use and Cover. 40 European Commission (EC) (2022). Soil strategy for 2030.
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Carbon stored in soils plays an important role in maintaining soil functionality, in water
and air quality and in climate change.
4.6 Water
4.6.1 Introduction
Water is fundamental to all life; for humans, plants and animals alike. Water is a hugely
important national resource that provides a multitude of benefits to the people of Ireland41.
Ireland’s rivers, lakes, estuaries and coastal waters are home to thousands of plant and animal
species ranging from river insects and marine invertebrates to birds and animals42. In Ireland,
there are 3,192 no. rivers, 818 no. lakes, 195 no. transitional waterbodies, 111 no. coastal
waterbodies and 513 no. ground waterbodies classified as Water Framework Directive
waterbodies43.
4.6.2 Water Framework Directive (WFD)
Trends in water quality in Ireland are mixed, and Ireland faces some considerable challenges
to meet the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). The main mechanism
for addressing water quality and meeting WFD objectives is the National River Basin
Management Plan (RBMP) and its associated Programme of Measures.
Nearly half of the surface waters in Ireland are failing to meet the legally binding water quality
objectives set by the WFD because of pollution and human disturbance44. The WFD goal is to
maintain ‘high’ and ‘good’ status waters and prevent the deterioration of waterbodies.
The 2021 EPA (Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report) assessment of water quality in
Ireland, finds that surface waters and groundwater’s continue to be under pressure from
human activity; particularly from nitrogen and phosphorous from urban wastewater discharges
and agriculture45.
The WFD is transposed into Irish law by the following regulations:
European Communities (Water Policy) Regulations, 2003 (S.I. No. 722 of 2003).
European Communities Environmental Objectives (Surface Waters) Regulations,
2009 (S.I. No. 272 of 2009 as amended by S.I. No. 77 of 2019).
European Communities Environmental Objectives (Groundwater) Regulations, 2010
(S.I. No. 9 of 2010 as amended by S.I. No. 366 of 2016).
41 EPA (2020). Ireland’s Environment - An Integrated Assessment 2020. 42 EPA (2020). Ireland’s Environment - An Integrated Assessment 2020. 43 DHPLG (2018). River Basin Management Plan for Ireland 2018-2021. 44 EPA (2020). Ireland’s Environment - An Integrated Assessment 2020. 45 EPA (2021). Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report.
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European Communities (Good Agricultural Practice for Protection of Waters)
Regulations, 2010 (S.I. No. 610 of 2010).
European Communities (Technical Specifications for the Chemical Analysis and
Monitoring of Water Status) Regulations, 2011 (S.I. No. 489 of 2011).
European Communities (Water Policy) Regulations 2014 (S.I. No. 350 of 2014).
European Communities (Drinking Water) Regulations 2014 (S.I. No. 122 of 2014).
European Communities (Marine Strategy Framework) Regulations (S.I. No. 249 of
2011).
Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland. The Private Water Supplies Regulations (Northern
Ireland) 2017, No. 211 of 2017.
4.6.2.1 Water Framework Directive Protected Areas
Article 6 of the WFD requires that Registers of Protected Areas (RPAs) are compiled for a
number of waterbodies or part of waterbodies which must have extra controls on their quality
by virtue of how their waters are used by people and by wildlife. This register is split into five
categories as outlined by the EPA:
Areas designated for the abstraction of water intended for human consumption under
Article 7;
Areas designated for the protection of economically significant aquatic species
(i.e. shellfish and freshwater fish);
Bodies of water designated as recreational waters, including areas designated as
bathing waters under Directive 76/160/EEC;
Nutrient-sensitive areas, including areas designated as vulnerable zones under
Directive 91/676/EEC and areas designated as sensitive areas under Directive
91/271/EEC; and
Areas designated for the protection of habitats or species where the maintenance
or improvement of the status of water is an important factor in their protection, including
relevant European sites (Natura 2000) designated under Directive 92/43/EEC and
Directive 79/409/EEC (see Figure 5.3).
4.6.3 River Basin Management Plan
The second cycle of the River Basin Management Plan (RBMP) ran from 2018 to 2021. Public
consultation for the draft River Basin Management Plan 2022-2027 closed on 31st March 2022.
This draft plan sets out how Ireland will manage its water resources and catchments between
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2022 and 2027. The next RBMP, must address the main pressures on water quality -
agriculture, hydromorphology (physical changes), forestry and urban wastewater discharges.
The draft plan sets out actions that Ireland will take to improve water quality and achieve ‘good’
ecological status in waterbodies (rivers, lakes, estuaries and coastal waters) by 2027. The
purpose of the plan was to identify waterbodies at risk of failing to meet the objectives of the
WFD and include a programme of measures to address and alleviate these pressures. Ireland
is required to produce a RBMP under the WFD.
In Ireland water quality data is also collected by the EPA to provide an overall status of water
quality. This monitoring programme, as part of the WFD, assesses water quality but also water
trends of rivers in relation to their ecological status and includes biological, physico-chemical
and hydro-morphological status.
Hydromorphological modification has emerged in Ireland as being the second most common
significant pressure on surface waterbodies. Overall, it is acknowledged that while the
measures for hydromorphology are broadly positive, much of the focus is on barriers, which
is an important aspect but mainly from the perspective of fish status. This is one of many
biological quality elements which together contribute to overall WFD ecological status.
4.6.4 Water Quality Status
The WFD defines ‘overall surface water status’ as the general status of a body of surface
water, determined by the poorer of its ecological status46 and its chemical status47. In order to
achieve ‘good surface water status’ both the ecological status and the chemical status of a
surface waterbody need to be at least ‘good’.
The 2021 EPA report ‘Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report’ has the most recent
assessment of water quality in Ireland. The following information was collected between 2013
and 2018:
53% of surface waters were in satisfactory ecological status; and
47% of surface waters were in moderate, poor or bad ecological status.
This means that nearly half of the surface waterbodies in Ireland are failing to meet the
objectives of the WFD, because of pollution and other human disturbance. Coastal waters had
the highest percentage of waters in good or better ecological status (80%) followed by rivers
(53%), lakes (50.5%) and estuaries (38%), which have the worst water quality48.
46Ecological status is an expression of the structure and functioning of aquatic ecosystems associated with surface waters. 47Chemical Status is a pass/fail assignment with a failure defined by a face-value exceedance of an Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) for one or more Priority Action Substances (PAS) listed in Annex X of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). 48 EPA (2021). Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report.
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The latest water quality assessment (2013-2018) shows that there is a continuing decline in
high status waterbodies, and an increase in the number of waterbodies in poor ecological
health49. The loss of high-status waterbodies has implications for the survival of certain
protected species sensitive to small changes in water quality such as the freshwater pearl
mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera)50.
The number of bad status waterbodies has slightly fallen over each assessment period, but
there are still 27 no. waterbodies in this category. These include nine rivers, 11 no. lakes and
seven estuarine waterbodies51.
Groundwater quality in Ireland is good, with 92% of groundwater waterbodies having good
chemical status. Waterbodies that fail to meet these objectives (38 no. waterbodies) are
typically associated with historical contamination from industrial sites52.
The figure below highlights the WFD River Waterbody Status for Ireland.
49 EPA (2021). Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report. 50 EPA (2021). Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report. 51 EPA (2021). Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report. 52 EPA (2021). Water Quality in 2020, An Indicators Report.
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4.6.5 Flood Risk
Floods are caused by a combination of events including overflowing riverbanks, heavy rains,
coastal storms or blocked or overloaded drainage systems and an increase in development
and impermeable surfacing. Floods are a natural and inevitable part of life that pose a risk to
human life and well-being, property and the environment, but climate change is contributing
to increased events such as rising sea levels, coastal erosion, storm surges, etc.
In the ‘Planning System and Flood Risk Management’, Guidelines for Planning Authorities, the
probability of a flood event taking place is recognised through the classification of ‘Flood
Zones’ which indicate a high, moderate or low risk of flooding from fluvial or tidal sources. The
Office of Public Works (OPW) is the lead State body for flood risk management.
The National Catchment Flood Risk Assessment and Management (CFRAM) Programme has
been the principle vehicle to deliver on Ireland’s commitments under the EU Floods Directive
(2007/60/EC). Each CFRAM study has produced flood maps, flood risk management
objectives and Flood Risk Management Plans (FRMPs). The OPW’s national flood information
portal (floodinfo.ie), provides location specific access to flood risk and flood management
information. This flood portal will be used to identify any potential flood risk areas, as the Draft
NCN Plan develops.
Groundwater flooding can also be a serious issue and occurs when the water table rises above
the level of the land, which results from the natural subsurface drainage system being unable
to drain away rainfall quickly enough. The GSI53 has initiated a new project called
GWClimate54. This project aims to improve the national capacity to understand how
groundwater resources may respond to climate change and support scientifically informed
decision making in the groundwater sector. Climate change will play a major role in shaping
Ireland’s water resources and natural environment in coming decades. Monitoring and early
detection of these pressures is key to informing successful adaptation strategies to minimize
adverse impacts.
4.6.6 Summary of Future Baseline
Nearly half of the surface waterbodies in Ireland are failing to meet the objectives of
the WFD, because of pollution and other human disturbance.
The latest water quality assessment (2013-2018) shows that there is a continuing
decline in high status waterbodies, and an increase in the number of waterbodies in
poor ecological health.
53 GSI, in collaboration with the Institute of Technology Carlow. 54 Available at: https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/programmes-and-projects/groundwater/projects/gwclimate/Pages/default.aspx
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Population growth, development, and climate change will likely increase pressure on
the WFD objectives and water resources.
Surface water and groundwater contamination arising through poor working practices,
and leakages.
Hydromorphological modification is the second most common significant pressure on
surface waterbodies. Hydromorphological issues were identified as a pressure in 28%
of ‘at risk’ waterbodies; of these 86% were due to channelisation and land drainage.
Climate change will likely increase flooding which could lead to adverse effects on
water quality from overflowing of storm water drains and leaching of contaminated soils
into surface waters.
4.7 Air Quality
4.7.1 Introduction
Air quality legislation in Ireland highlights the need ‘to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects
on human health and the environment as a whole’.
Air quality impacts can be on a local scale or a regional / national scale. Local air quality
impacts can have significant health impacts.
Ireland has good air quality which is rated amongst some of the best in the EU. This is largely
due to the country’s prevailing wind which blows from a westerly direction in from the Atlantic
and an absence of large cities or industry. The EPA is responsible for monitoring the nation’s
levels of air pollutants within four zones as follows:
Zone A: Dublin;
Zone B: Cork;
Zone C: Other cities and large towns in Ireland; and
Zone D: Rural Ireland.
The figure below highlights the EPA Air Quality Index for Health (AQIH) map of Ireland.
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4.7.2 Air Quality Standards
The framework for the EU clean air policy aims to protect EU citizens from adverse health
effects of poor air quality, as well as protect ecosystems. This framework uses a combination
of standards and directives to regulate sources of air pollutants, to reduce national emission
quantities and set limit values for levels of air pollutants in ambient air.
The applicable standards in Ireland include the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2011, which
incorporate EU Directive 2008/50/EC, which has set limit values for NO2, PM10, PM2.5, benzene
and CO.
The 2013 EU Clean Air Programme for Europe (CAFE) provided a comprehensive review of
emissions-related elements. As a result, the new National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive
(2016/2284/EU) replaced the earlier NEC Directive (2001/81/EC)55. The NEC Directive set
emissions reduction commitments for 2020 and 2030 based on a reduction from 2005
emissions. The reduction commitments are designed to reduce the health impacts of air
pollution by half compared with 2005.
The NEC Directive also requires that Member States draw up a National Air Pollution Control
Programme (NAPCP) to help implement air quality plans established under the Ambient Air
Quality Directives (2008/50/EC and 2004/107/EC).
4.7.2.1 Ambient Air Quality
The EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (AAMP) was established in
- The EPA has worked with local authorities and other public bodies, to establish 96 air
monitoring stations, 18 of which were installed in 2020.
The 2021 EPA report ‘Air Quality in Ireland 2020’ states that Ireland was compliant with EU
legal limits in 2020, largely due to the reduction in traffic due to COVID-19 restrictions, however
monitored levels were above the WHO air quality guideline values at 52 monitoring stations,
due to the burning of solid fuels for home heating56. Solid fuels (e.g., coal, peat and wood)
produce fine particulate matter emissions when burned in open fires or stoves. Fine particulate
matter in the air greatly impacts respiratory and cardiovascular health57.
Monitored nitrogen dioxide levels were reduced in 2020 when compared to previous years.
Reductions of up to 50% compared to 2019 were observed at many traffic monitoring
stations58. Recent figures from the CSO show that traffic volumes have yet to return to pre-
COVID-19 levels. However, 2021 traffic levels are not significantly lower than 2019 levels59.
55 EPA (2020). Ireland’s Environment - An Integrated Assessment 2020. 56 EPA (2021). Air Quality in Ireland 2020. 57 EPA (2021). Air Quality in Ireland 2020. 58 EPA (2021). Air Quality in Ireland 2020. 59 EPA (2021). Air Quality in Ireland 2020.
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Key to improving air quality in Ireland is to reduce transport pollution by reducing traffic
volumes.
Below is a summary of results for 2020, from the 2021 EPA report - Air Quality in Ireland 2020’:
PM10 was measured at 67 no. monitoring stations in 2020 and there were no
exceedances of the EU limit values (annual or daily).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) PM10 air quality guideline annual value was
exceeded at one monitoring station.
The WHO PM10 air quality guideline daily value was exceeded at 14 no. monitoring
stations.
A WHO PM10 air quality guideline value (either daily or annual) was exceeded at a total
of 14 no. monitoring stations.
PM2.5 was measured at 64 monitoring stations in 2020 and there were no exceedances
of the EU annual limit.
The WHO PM2.5 air quality guideline annual value was exceeded at nine monitoring
stations.
The WHO PM2.5 air quality guideline daily value was exceeded at 34 no. monitoring
stations.
A WHO PM2.5 air quality guideline value (either daily or annual) was exceeded at a total
of 34 no. monitoring stations.
4.7.3 Summary of Future Baseline
New development and infrastructure provision has the potential to increase the amount
of traffic on the key routes in Ireland, with the potential for increasing pollutants.
Cleaner vehicles, including the update of electric vehicles have the potential to lead to
improvements in air quality over the longer term. The implementation of EV charging
points across Ireland will likely lead to positive effects in terms of addressing EV
challenges, including through increasing public confidence in charging infrastructure.
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4.8 Climate Change
4.8.1 Introduction
Climate change refers to a long-term, large-scale change in global or regional climate patterns.
In recent years, global temperatures have been rising. Urgent action is needed to address
climate change and to move Ireland towards a low carbon, climate resilient economy and
society.
Human activity has had a pronounced effect on the level of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the
atmosphere. Activities such as the burning of fossil fuels for heating, energy and transport, in
addition to other activities such as agriculture, construction and waste, have caused a rise in
the levels of GHGs in the atmosphere.
In Ireland, the expected effects of climate change are increased frequency of extreme weather
events. This will include a 20%-30% increase in precipitation, greater rainfall and an average
annual temperature increase of ∼2°C. The potential impacts of climate change could have
serious consequences for both people and infrastructure along Ireland’s coastal areas as well
as its rivers60.
4.8.2 Ireland’s Policy Context
In 1994, Ireland ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997) formally in 200261. In 2012, Ireland agreed to limit
the net growth of the six GHGs under the Kyoto Protocol to 20% below the 2005 level over
the period 2013 to 202062, for the purposes of the EU burden sharing agreement.
The most recent Conference of the Parties to the Convention (COP26) summit took place in
Glasgow, Scotland in November 2021. The COP summit brings parties together to accelerate
action towards the goals of the Paris Agreement and the UFCCC.
In Ireland, the National Policy Position on Climate Action and Low Carbon Development and
the Climate Action and Low Carbon Development Act 2015 provide the policy framework for
climate action at national level.
The National Policy Position provides a high-level policy direction for the adoption and
implementation by Government of plans to enable the State to pursue the transition to a low
carbon, climate resilient and environmentally sustainable economy by 2050.
The Climate Action and Low Carbon Development Act 201563 seeks to address the issue of
climate changes and establishes the national goal to move to a low carbon, climate resilient
60 GOI (2019). Flood Risk Management Climate Adaptation Plan. 61 UNFCC (1997) Kyoto Protocol.UNFCC (1999). Doha Climate Change Conference. 62 UNFCC (2012). Doha Climate Change. 63 Government of Ireland (2015).
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and environmentally sustainable economy. Under this Act the National Mitigation Plan64 and
the National Adaptation Framework65 were established. The Climate Action and Low Carbon
Development (Amendment) Act 2021 was signed into law in 2021. This Act aims to amend the
2015 Act in order to strengthen the governance framework on climate action by the State
through the introduction of a legally binding interim target of 51% reduction by 2030 relative to
a baseline of 2018.
Ireland’s long-term climate policy framework was set out in the National Mitigation Plan (2017).
The National Mitigation Plan66 set out the initial steps to achieve the level of decarbonisation
required, with a key focus to reduce emissions from its largest contributing sectors: agriculture,
transport and energy. However, in July 2020 the Supreme Court held that the plan does not
comply with Ireland’s obligations under the Climate Action and Low Carbon Development Act
2015 to give sufficient detail about achieving the national transition objective of a low carbon
economy by the end of 2050.
4.8.3 Ireland’s Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Overview
Since 2011, emissions in Ireland have trended upwards again with an overall peak in
emissions reported in 2018. The 2020 European Environment Agency (EEA) report ‘Trends
and Projections in Europe 2020’ outlines that as of 2020, Ireland has the 4th highest per capita
GHG emissions in the EU67.
The agricultural sector is the single largest contributor of the Ireland’s GHG emissions at
37.1% in total (in 2020). The transport and energy sectors are the second and third at 17.9%
and 15% largest respectively, with the transport sector the fastest growing source of GHG
emissions. The residential and manufacturing combustion sectors account for 12.3% and
7.8% respectively. The remainder includes Industrial processes at 3.7%, F-Gases at 1.4%,
Commercial services at 1.6%, Public services at 1.6% and waste at 1.6%68.
During 2020, GHG emissions in Ireland decreased by only 3.6%, despite the economic and
social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. A few key drivers of the recent reductions in GHG
emissions include the reduced use of peat and the increased power generation from
renewable sources in the electricity sector, reduced transport emissions (due to COVID-19
restrictions) and decreases in combustion and process emissions due to reduced cement
production (due to the extended closures of cement plants during COVID-19 restrictions).
64 The Plan was quashed by the Supreme Court on 31 July 2020 (Appeal No. 205/10). 65 DCCAE (2017) National Mitigation Plan. DCCAE (2018). National Adaptation Framework. 66 The Plan sets out the Government’s approach to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 67 EEA (2020). Trends and Projections in Europe 2020. 68 DECC (2021). Climate Action Plan 2021
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In 2020, there were increased emissions in the residential sector driven by an increased
number of heating days in 2020 (associated with a colder winter) and increased working from
home.
4.8.3.1 Climate Change - Emissions in Ireland
The European Commission’s (EC) 2050 Low-Carbon Economy Roadmap69 determined that
all sectors must contribute towards the EU 2050 target of an 80% reduction in GHG emissions,
but the relative contribution of individual sectors will be limited according to their technological
and economic potential.
At the end of 2018, there were over 2.71 million licensed70 vehicles on Irish roads. Private cars
accounted for the majority of these vehicles (over 77%); goods vehicles accounted for 13%,
with agricultural vehicles and motorcycles collectively representing a further 4.3%71.
4.8.4 Summary of Future Baseline
Climate change has the potential to increase the occurrence of extreme weather
events in Ireland, with increases in mean summer and winter temperatures, increases
in mean precipitation in winter and decreases in mean precipitation in summer. This is
likely to increase the risks associated with climate change, with an increased need for
resilience and adaptation.
In terms of climate change mitigation, per capita emissions are likely to continue to
decrease as energy efficiency measures, renewable energy production and new
technologies become more widely adopted. In particular, an ongoing increase in the
use of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles has the potential to reduce emissions from
transport.
Ireland is also failing to meet EU targets on ammonia emissions under the National
Emissions Ceiling (NEC) Directive. Agriculture is the main source of national ammonia
emissions.
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need to accelerate a shift to active travel
with an upscaling in infrastructure provisions for pedestrians and cyclists in particular.
69 EC (2011). A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050. 70 Taxed 71 DT (2019). Tourism and Sport, Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics.
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4.9 Cultural Heritage
4.9.1 Introduction
The physical traces left in the landscape by previous generations in archaeological
monuments and sites and in historic buildings, townscapes and vernacular structures forms
part of the tangible cultural heritage linking the past and present.
4.9.2 Archaeological Heritage
In Ireland, archaeological sites are legally protected under the following legislation:
The National Monuments Acts.
The National Cultural Institutions Act 1997.
The Planning and Development Act 2000 (as amended).
4.9.2.1 Record of Monuments and Places (RMPs)
The Record of Monuments and Places (RMPs) is one of the primary sources of information
for known archaeological features. The RMP is the statutory list of all known archaeological
monuments in Ireland as compiled by the Archaeological Survey of Ireland, part of the
Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage. The RMPs was established under
the National Monuments Acts 1930 to 2004.
In addition to the location of known upstanding monuments, it also documents the location of
destroyed monuments and the location of possible sites. Any monuments listed under the
RMPs have legal protection and the Minister must be notified if there is any work taking place
at, or in relation to, a Recorded Monument.
As of 2016 there were 80,000 no. sites recorded in the RMPs. Of these RMPs, c. 1,000 no.
are under State care.
4.9.2.2 Sites and Monuments Record (SMR)
An additional key source of information for cultural heritage comes in the form of the Sites and
Monuments Record (SMR). With 160,528 no. records to archaeological monuments, not all
sites within the SMR are included in the RMP. The figure below highlights the concentrations
of sites listed on the SMR in Ireland.
4.9.3 Architectural Heritage
Architectural heritage is defined in the Architectural Heritage (National Inventory) and Historic
Monuments Act 1999 as meaning all: “structures and buildings together with their settings and
attendant grounds, fixtures and fittings; groups of structures and buildings; and, sites which
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are of technical, historical, archaeological, artistic, cultural, scientific, social, or technical
interest”72.
4.9.3.1 National Inventory of Architectural Heritage (NIAH)
Established under the Architectural Heritage and Historic Monuments Act 1999, the National
Inventory of Architectural Heritage (NIAH) identifies, records and evaluates the post-1700
architectural heritage of Ireland, as an aid in the protection and conservation of the built
heritage.
NIAH surveys provide the basis for the recommendations of the Minister for the Environment,
Heritage and Local Government to the planning authorities for the inclusion of particular
structures in their Record of Protected Structures (RPS). There is c. 43,300 no. NIAH records
on the national inventory.
72 DHLGH (2021). National Inventory of Architectural Heritage.
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4.9.3.2 Record of Protected Structures (RPS)
The Record of Protected Structures is a primary source of information for known architectural
heritage. The NIAH surveys provide the basis for the recommendations of the Minister
(Housing, Local Government and Heritage) to planning authorities for the inclusion of
particular structures in their RPS. Under Section 51 of the Planning and Development Act (as
amended) local authorities are required to compile and maintain an RPS in their development
plans. Sites included in the RPS are awarded automatic protection and may not be demolished
or materially altered without grant of permission under the Planning Acts.
Established under the Architectural Heritage and Historic Monuments Act 1999, the purpose
of the NIAH is to identify, record, and evaluate the post-1700 heritage of Ireland.
4.9.3.3 Architectural Conservation Areas (ACAs)
Architectural Conservation Areas (ACAs) are areas protected for their special characteristics
and distinctive features. They are designated under Section 81 of the Planning and
Development Act (as amended). Details on ACAs can be found in County Development Plans.
4.9.4 UNESCO World Heritage Sites
In Ireland there are two registered UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in Ireland:
Brú na Bóinne, County Meath; and
Skellig Michael, County Kerry.
In addition to the two above, seven further sites have been suggested by the Irish Government
as appropriate for putting forward for UNESCO World Heritage Site status. These are included
on the ‘tentative list’ of properties which are considered to be cultural and / or natural heritage
of outstanding universal value and therefore suitable for inscription on the World Heritage List.
The seven sites are as follows:
The Burren.
The Historic City of Dublin.
The Céide Fields and North-West Mayo Boglands.
Western Stone Forts.
The Monastic City of Clonmacnoise and its Cultural Landscape.
Early Medieval Monastic Sites.
The Royal Sites of Ireland: Cashel, Dún Ailinne, Hill of Uisneach, Rathcroghan
Complex, and Tara Complex.
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4.9.5 Summary of Future Baseline
Future growth in Ireland, including housing, employment and infrastructure provision,
has the potential to impact on the fabric and setting of heritage assets. This includes
through inappropriate location, design and layout.
Increasing traffic levels associated with an increase in population has the potential to
negatively impact heritage assets.
However, new development and infrastructure provision need not be harmful to the
significance of a heritage asset; it also provides opportunities to better reveal assets’
cultural heritage significance and enhance their settings.
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