_Hlk7173680

Midlands region has the lowest proportion (21%).

usually resident in the state. Irish Travellers make

The Border region has the highest proportion of

up 0.7% of the female population and the largest

females with no formal education or a primary

relative proportion of female Irish Travellers

education only (12.75%). See Appendix 1 Table A.13

exists in the Midlands region where they account

for details of highest education completed.

for 1.3% of the female population. See Table

A.10 for details of the 10 counties that have the

1.3.2 Employment

highest proportion of Travellers among the female

At the time of the last Census 126,466 (6.6%)

population. Longford is the county with the

women aged 15 years and over were unemployed

highest proportion at 2.5%.

(the equivalent male unemployment rate was

Female Travellers aged 65 and over account for 3.1% of the female Traveller population, compared to 14.2% for over 65’s in the general Irish population.

9.3%), while 48.6% of women were employed,

11.3% were students, 14.9% were looking after the

family/home, 14.1% were retired and 4.2% were

unable to work because of sickness or disability,

with 0.4% females falling into the category of

other (e.g. not in the workforce). See Appendix

1 Table A.14 for details of economic status of

Traveller females aged 0 to 24 years also make

females over 15 years.

up a larger relative proportion of the Traveller

population (56.5%) compared to 0 to 24-year

In Q2 of 2017 the employment rate among

olds among the general population (24.2%). See

females with a third level education was 81%,

Appendix 1 Table A.11 for details.

in contrast to a 60% employment rate for upper

secondary educated females and 25% for females

with a primary education only. Since 2009, the

employment rate for women with a primary

education only and upper secondary education

has dropped by 5% and 2% points respectively.

The employment rate among third level educated

females has risen by 3% points since 2009.

between 25 and 64 years; 14.2% were 65 years

Unemployment levels among females over 15

and over; 5.9% were 24 and under (see Appendix

of all ethnic or cultural backgrounds was 6.6%.

1, Table A.20). A much smaller number of

Unemployment was highest among Irish Travellers

individuals (70,459 individuals (including 53,978

(37%) and Black or Black Irish – African (20.5%).

(76.6%) women) were in receipt of the means-

See Appendix 1 Table A.15 for details of education

tested Carer’s Allowance in 201619 with eligibility

level and employment rates and Table A.16 for

for the Carer’s Allowance, limited to individuals

details of female unemployment by ethnic group.

on low incomes, and requiring that individual to

not be engaged in employment, self-employment,

training or education courses outside the home for

1.4 Health, disability and caring

more than 15 hours a week20.

1.4.1 Health

The hours of unpaid care provided by female

carers varied significantly – 41.2% of female

Almost three out of five women (59.3%) described

carers provided 1-14 hours of unpaid help per

their health as very good in Census 2016. This

week, while 10.2% of female carers provided 168

response varied greatly by age and fell to 23.2%

hours per week. See Appendix 1, Table A.21 details

for females aged 65 years and over. See Appendix

the hours of unpaid care provided by female carers

1 Table A.17 for details.

(aged 15 and over).

1.4.2 Disability

Figure from page 17

Figure from page 17

Of the total female population 13.8% have at least one disability.

Appendix 1 Table A.18 provides details on the

types of disabilities experienced by females in the

state. The proportion of the female population

aged 15 years and over who are unable to work due

to permanent sickness or disability has increased

by 2% points since 1991 to 4.2%. The proportion

of females with a disability is highest in the

Mid-West region at 14.6% and lowest in the West

region at 13.4%. See Appendix 1 Table A.19 for

details.

1.4.3 Caring and carers

The CSO defines a carer as anyone who provides

regular unpaid personal help for a friend or family

member with a long-term illness, health problem

or disability. The CSO does not include caring for

‘own children’ within its definition. A total of

195,263 persons in the state identified themselves

as carers (providing unpaid assistance to others)

at the time of the last census. Of persons in caring

roles, females accounted for 118,151 or 60.5%

of this group. 80% of female cares were aged

19 CSO. (2016). Women and Men in Ireland 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ ep/p-wamii/womenandmeninireland2016/health/ and http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-wamii/ womenandmeninireland2016/introduction/

20 Citizen’s Information.(2019). Carers Allowance. RetrievedFrom:https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/social_welfare/social_ welfare_payments/carers/carers_allowance.html

Women’s Health in Ireland — Evidence Base for the development of the Women’s Health Action Plan

1.5.3 Rural Women

1.5 Fertility rates and life expectancy

Approximately 36.6% of the female population

live in rural areas (see Appendix 1Table A.24 for

1.5.1 Fertility rates21

female population by urban and rural area. For

many this means that they have limited access

Since 2009, there has been a gradual decrease

to public transport to access health facilities. It is

in the number of live births, however Ireland

also the case that 20% of households nationally,

still has the third highest fertility rate in the

the vast majority of which are in rural areas, do

EU behind France and Sweden. This is due in

not have access to high speed broadband, which

part to the reduction in fertility rates but, more

in turns limits their capacity to access health

significantly, to the fact that the number of

information online25.

women in the child-bearing age groups has

declined in recent years22.This is likely to result

in a steady reduction in the number of births over

the coming decade even if, as expected, Ireland

Figure from page 18

Figure from page 18

continues to experience fertility rates which

are higher than most other EU countries. See

Appendix 1 Table A.22 for details.

1.5.2 Life expectancy (by age and gender)23

Life expectancy in Ireland continues to rise

for women (and men), with the gender gap

narrowing slightly. A female child born in 2015 is

now expected to live for 83.6 years (and an Irish

man for 79.9 years). The number of healthy life

years is 69.8 years for females and 67.3 years for

males in Ireland compared with EU averages of

64.2 years for female, 63.5 years for males.These

improvements are largely due to lower mortality

and better survival from conditions such as heart

disease and cancer affecting older age groups.24

See Appendix 1Table A.23 for life expectancy by

age and gender.

21 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is a measure of the average number of children a woman could expect to have if the fertility rates for a given year pertained throughout her fertile years

22 Department of Health. (2017). Health in Ireland Key Trends 2017. Retrievedfrom:https://health.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/ Key-Trends.pdf

23 Ibid

24 Ibid

25 Fibre Roll Out. (2019). National Broadband Plan. Retrieved from: https://fibrerollout.ie/rural-ireland/nbp/

Figure 2.1 Determinants of health

Figure 2.1 Determinants of health

Section 2 – Women’s Health in Ireland

2.1 Health

2.1.1 Health and gender

Figure 2.1 Determinants of health

Figure 2.1 Determinants of health

Women and men are biologically different; they

-e

Living & working conditions

are also different because of socially constructed

norms and beliefs. There are also many other

Unemployment

Work

issues such as access to health services, cost of

Water & sanitation

recovery, distance to health facilities, etc. that

Education

have differential connotations and implications on

Health

Agriculture

care services

& food production

the health of women and men.

Age, sex & constitutional

Housing

factors

Women’s health therefore is determined not only by physical make-up, but also by a range of other factors including sex, and gender, as well as other social determinants across the life course.

(Source: Dahlgren & Whitehead,1992)

2.1.2 Health and gender inequalities

Whilst women in Ireland have a higher

life expectancy than men, women in most

communities report more illness and distress

This means that health is a product of the

than men. Women are also more likely to: earn

conditions in which women are born, grow,

less than men and be less financially secure; be

live, work and age as well as whether or not a

employed in casual, part time work; undertake the

woman has sufficient income, adequate housing,

majority of work in the home; experience violence

and social or community bonds and support, in

from their partner; be discriminated against; be

addition to behaviour, diet and lifestyle. In this

the victims of sexual assault; experience anxiety

way, the totality of women’s life experiences

and depression; and have caring responsibilities

impact on their health and wellbeing. See Figure

for children, partners, parents and other family

2.1 for details of some of these social determinants

members. Women are also often a key influence

and the links and interactions between them.

for their partners and children in terms of seeking

appropriate and timely healthcare26. Women’s

health must therefore be understood within the

broader contexts in which women live and work.

26 Women’s Health Council. (2002). Promoting women’s health: A population investment for Ireland’s future. A position paper of the Women’s Health Council. Retrieved from: https://health.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/promoting_womens_health.pdf

Women’s Health in Ireland — Evidence Base for the development of the Women’s Health Action Plan

their early years; education; working conditions;

2.1.3 Health inequalities and gender

employment and incomes levels; engagement in

Those who are poorer and disadvantaged (e.g.

community; and engagement in public health

women who tend to earn less and be less financially

and health systems.29 A 2002 Northern Ireland

secure) are more likely to face more illness during

study estimated that 5,400 fewer people would die

their lifetime and die younger than those who

prematurely each year across the island of Ireland

are better off. This means that the chances of

if social deprivation and inequalities were tackled

a long and healthy life are not the same for all

(p23).30

women and while a certain amount of variation in

health, based on biological or genetic factors is to

2.2 What we know about women’s health in Ireland

be expected, notwithstanding there is a distinct

health gap between rich and poor. There is also

a clear social gradient in health whereby health

generally improves with income with particular

2.2.1 Women’s general health

social groups (defined by ethnicity, gender or

According to Healthy Ireland self-reported

geography for example) more affected by these

surveys, slightly more women (86%) than men

inequalities than other groups. Health inequalities

(84%) perceive their health to be very good or good.

tend to be persistent through time and have three

The gender gap in self-reported good health is

distinguishing features as follows:27

largest among those aged 55 to 64. 81% of women

in this age group perceive their health to be good

—They are systematic, that is they are not —

or very good, compared with 73% of men. Self-

random but follow a consistent social pattern.

reported good health is also higher both among

—They are socially produced, rather than the —

those who are working than among those who

result of biological or other fixed processes,

are unemployed (93% and 78% respectively) and

and are therefore regarded as modifiable.

among those living in more affluent areas than

—They are widely perceived to be unfair or —

those living in more deprived areas (90% and 79%

inequitable.

respectively)31. Women are also more likely than

men to describe their oral health as good or very

Health inequalities do not arise by chance; neither

good (82% and 76% respectively)32. The proportion

can they be simply attributed to genetic makeup,

describing their oral health as good or very good

‘bad’ behaviour, or difficulties in access to medical

declines with age. Women have been found to be

care.28 Even though these factors may have a role

more pro-active about their health (for example,

to play, the reality is that social and economic

women between the ages of 35 and 74, women are

differences in health status are a reflection of

more likely to visit a dentist than men (53% and

larger and more far reaching social and economic

42% respectively), while women also visit their GP

inequalities in society. These larger inequalities

more regularly and are more likely to receive the

can be related to economic arrangements,

flu vaccine (27% and 23% respectively)33.

the quality of governance, social policies and

programmes, etc. which in turn with other factors

ultimately can have a direct and profound impact

on the lives people are able to lead in terms of:

27 Dahlgren, G. & Whitehead, M. (2006). European Strategies for Tackling Social Inequities in Health. WHO, Geneva. Retrieved from: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/103824/E89384.pdf

28 Marmot Review. (2010). Fair Society, Healthy Lives- Strategic review of health Inequalities in England post 2010. Retrieved from: http:// www.instituteofhealthequity.org/resources-reports/fair-society-healthy-lives-the-marmot-review

29 World Health Organisation. (2010). Interim First Report on Social Determinants of Health and the Health Divide in the European Region. Retrieved from: http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/obesity/publications/2010/interim-firstreport-on-social-determinants-of-health-and-the-health-divide-in-the-who-european-region

30 Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety. (2002). Investing for Health. Belfast: DHSSPS. Retrieved from: http://publichealthwell.ie/node/3481

31 Ipsos MRBI and Department of Health. (2018). Healthy Ireland Survey 2018 Summary of Findings. Department of Health: Dublin. Retrieved from: https://health.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Healthy-Ireland-Survey-2018.pdf

32 Ibid.

33 Ibid.

Classification devised by the WHO uses waist

2.2.1.1 Women and chronic diseases

measurements to identify whether individuals

As people age, chronic conditions become more

have a normal, increased or substantially

prevalent with females having a somewhat higher

increased level of risk of premature death due to

prevalence of chronic conditions compared to

obesity. Women are more likely to be at risk than

males. See Table 2.1 for details.

men, with 45% of women having a substantially

increased level of risk, compared with 27% of

Table 2.1 Chronic conditions and limitations by gender
Description	% Male	% Female
People with a long-standing illness or health problem	26.4	27.8
Self-perceived long-standing limitations (some and severe limitations) in usual activities due to health problems	16.8	18.6
Source: Table 2.2 and 2.3 in Dept of Health (2016) Health in Ireland Key Trends 2016 (EU-SILC, Eurostat)

men. Women aged 75 and older have the highest

level of risk, with 19% having an increased level

of risk and 67% having a substantially increased

level of risk38.

2.2.1.2 Women’s mortality

As the Irish population ages, cancers and related

tumors are now the most common cause of death

(just ahead of diseases of the circulatory system),

and an annual average of about 8,770 deaths from

invasive cancer occurred during 2012-201439.

Lung cancer was the leading cause of cancer

death in both sexes, accounting for 19% of cancer

Women are for example 2.7 times more likely

deaths in women and 23% in men. Death rates

to suffer autoimmune conditions than men,

for respiratory issues are indeed high in Ireland

and comprise 78.8% of sufferers in the US34.

by comparison to the EU15 average40. The burden

Autoimmune conditions can include rheumatoid

of respiratory death in women points to the

arthritis35, celiac disease, Type 1 diabetes, lupus

burden of illness from smoking and from other

erythromatosis, and Addison’s disease, etc. The

contributory factors, including a cold climate

prevalence of both migraine36 and other chronic

with high humidity levels (but insufficient deep

pain conditions is also higher in women than in

cold to curtail the transmission of infection)

men37.

and high damp levels in under-insulated and

At least 6 out of 10 Irish adults are either

under-damp proofed older housing. The fact

overweight or obese. 53% of women are

that there is a high incidence of both allergic

overweight compared with 70% of men. The

respiratory disorders (rhinitis, asthma) and of

proportion of the population that has a normal

genetic respiratory disease in Ireland (e.g. Cystic

weight declines with age, with 63% of those

Fibrosis, Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency) are also

aged 15 to 24 having a normal weight, declining

significant contributory factors. Approximately

to 24% of those aged 65 and older. Women in all

one in 19 Irish people are carriers of cystic

age groups are more likely than men of the same

fibrosis and one in 25 are carriers of Alpha-1.

age to have a normal weight. The Metabolic Risk

These carriers are also at higher risk of various

34 Jacobson DL., Gange SJ., Rose N.R, Graham NM. (1997). ‘Epidemiology and estimated population burden of selected autoimmune diseases in the United States’. Clin ImmunolImmunopathology. Sep;84(3):223-43. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/9281381

35 The Migraine Trust. (No Date). Facts and Figures. Retrieved from: https://www.migrainetrust.org/about-migraine/migrainewhat-is-it/facts-figures/

36 Save Lives. (2015). Who are the victims of domestic abuse? Retrieved from: http://www.safelives.org.uk/policy-evidence/aboutdomestic-abuse/who-are-victims-domestic-abuse

37 Fillingim, RB., King, CD., Ribeiro-Dasilva, MC., Rahim-Williams, B., Riley, JL. (2009) ‘Sex, gender, and pain: a review of recent clinical and experimental findings’. J Pain. 2009;10(5):447-85. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19411059

38 Ipsos MRBI and Department of Health. (2017). Healthy Ireland Survey 2017 Summary of Findings. Department of Health: Dublin. Retrieved from: https://health.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/16-048825-Healthy-Ireland-Survey-18-October_for-printing. pdf

39 National Cancer Registry Ireland (2017) Cancer in Ireland: 1994-2015 with estimates for 2015-17. National Cancer Registry Ireland.

40 Jennings, S.M. (2014). Preventing chronic disease: defining the problem – Report from the Prevention of Chronic DiseasesProgramme. HSE, Royal College of Physicians of Ireland, Office of Nursing and Midwifery Services Director, Healthy Ireland. Retrieved from: https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/338212

Women’s Health in Ireland — Evidence Base for the development of the Women’s Health Action Plan

respiratory illnesses, including asthma. Given

the high burden of respiratory disease, Healthy

Ireland/Department of Communications, Climate

Action and Environment/HSE Warmth and

Wellbeing scheme provides funding for those

with respiratory disease (not solely due to genetic

issues) to improve insulation, damp-proofing, etc.

in their homes.

Women’s risk of dying of cancer is about 34%

lower than for men. Survival has improved

markedly for cancers as a whole and for the most

common cancer types in females the five-year net

survival increased from 48% during 1994-1998

to 60% during 2010-201441. The top four most

common cancers represented among the surviving

(prevalent) cancer patient population were: breast

cancer (23% of all cancer survivors), prostate

cancer (20%), colorectal cancer (12%) and skin

melanoma (7%). Ireland however remains below

the OECD average for survival rates, with the

exception of prostate cancer42.

Table 2.2 Social gradients in relation to cancer incidence
Cancer Type	Irish Statistics43	Description
Lung	— The risk of lung cancer is 74% greater for women and 54% greater for men living in high density areas than it is for those living in lower density areas. — Areas with the highest levels of unemployment had higher rates of female and male lung cancer than those with the lowest levels. (The relative risk between the highest and lowest quintiles for men was 1.40 (95%CI=1.32-1.49). — Women and men in areas with the poorest education levels had greater risk (23% for women; 32% for men) of lung cancer than individuals living in the areas with the highest level of educational attainment. — Areas with the highest proportions of elderly living alone also had an elevated risk of lung cancer.	— Smoking is the principal cause of lung cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (2004) estimated that in populations with prolonged cigarette use, 90% of lung cancer cases are due to cigarette smoking). Risk increases with younger age at smoking commencement and longer duration of smoking. Passive smoking is a cause of lung cancer in those who have never smoked. — According to the All Island Health Atlas the consistent relationship between higher lung cancer risk and lower socio- economic status probably reflects social class variations in tobacco exposure.

41 Department of Health. (2017). National Cancer Strategy (2017-2025), Dublin: Department of Health. Retrieved from: https://health. gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/National-Cancer-Strategy-2017-2026.pdf

42 Ibid, p.24.

43 National Cancer Registry/Northern Ireland Cancer. (2011). All-Ireland Cancer Atlas 1995-2007. Cork/Belfast. Retrieved from: https://www.ncri.ie/publications/cancer-atlases-and-geographic-studies/all-ireland-cancer-atlas-1995-2007

Table 2.2 (continued) Social gradients in relation to cancer incidence
Cancer Type	Irish Statistics	Description
Stomach	— Those with low socio-economic status have increased stomach cancer risk, probably in part reflecting variations in tobacco use by social class. — The risk of stomach cancer for women and men is greater in high density than in low density areas. — Stomach cancer risk also increased for both women and men as the proportion of unemployed in an area increased. The same pattern was seen for educational attainment; people living in areas with low levels of educational attainment had the greatest risk of stomach cancer. — The relationship between female stomach cancer risk and areas where there were higher levels of elderly people living alone was stronger (1.26 (95%CI=1.11-1.43)) than that for men.	— Infection with the common bacterium, Helicobacter pylori (H pylori), which lives in the stomach and causes inflammation and ulcers, is associated with a six-fold raised risk of stomach cancer. Smoking is also firmly established as a cause of stomach cancer. Other risk factors include higher intakes of salt, salty foods or foods preserved in salt with risks reduced for individuals with higher intakes of fruit and non-starchy or fresh vegetables.
Cervical	— Women of lower socio-economic status have raised cervical cancer risk which is partly a function of variations in exposure to risk factors. It also is a reflection of social class differences in access to cervical smear tests or participation in organised screening programmes. — The risk of cervical cancer increases with increasing population density. Those resident in areas of highest density have a 48% greater risk. — Areas with the highest levels of unemployment had higher rates of cervical cancer than those with the lowest levels. (The relative risk between the lowest and highest groups was 1.21 (95% CI= 1.06-1.37) — Women in areas with the lowest education levels had a 66% greater risk of cervical cancer than those in areas with the highest levels of educational attainment.	— The association between cervical cancer and high-risk types of human papilloma viruses (HPV) infection is so strong that HPV is considered to be a necessary cause of the disease (Bosch et al., 2002). Infection with human immunodeficiency virus, type 1 (HIV-1) is also recognised as a cause of cervical cancer. There is also a causal relationship between smoking and squamous cell cancer of the cervix, which persists after adjustment for HPV infection.

Women’s Health in Ireland — Evidence Base for the development of the Women’s Health Action Plan

Cancers of the uterus and ovary are also common

who had developed cervical cancer. The Scally

cancers in women. Whilst ovarian cancer

Scoping Inquiry into the CervicalCheck Screening

incidence rates have fallen slightly over the last

Programme made a number of recommendations

number of years, uterine (womb) cancer incidence

in relation to how the screening programme

is rising. Contributors to this rise include

could be improved. It also recommended giving

increases in obesity, increased use of tamoxifen

‘consistent, expert and committed attention within

and a decline in the rates of hysterectomies for

the health system’ to women’s health.

sterilisation or treatment of heavy menstrual

2.2.2 Women’s mental health

bleeding.44

There are differences between women and men

Major cancers with the highest proportions of

in how they express mental distress. This is seen

emergency presentation during 2014-2016 were

in the prevalence of mental illness (particularly

cancers of the pancreas (36%), liver (34%), brain

common mental disorders such as anxiety and

& CNS (31%) and lung (25%). Lifestyle changes

depression, self-harm, substance misuse and

that can help reduce risk of breast cancer, include

suicide); pathways into treatment and support;

eating healthily, being active, limiting alcohol and

and in therapeutic preferences48. It is also the case

not smoking. Breastfeeding helps to prevent risk

that many women’s preferred intervention are

of breast cancer. It should be noted in this context

talking therapies/counselling, this is despite the

that steep social gradients exist in relation to the

fact that women believe there is an over-reliance

incidence of some cancers (lung, stomach, upper

on medication as a solution to women’s mental

aero digestive tract (UADT), and cervical cancer in

health issues.49

particular). 45 See Table 2.2 for details.

There are well-established links between the risks of mental illness and the social realities of women’s lives. These include women’s relatively lower incomes and access to household resources and responsibility for childcare and other caring responsibilities, as well as sexual abuse and domestic violence.

Screening can help protect women’s health

through early detection.46 BreastCheck, the

National Breast Screening Programme, offers all

women aged 50 to 67 a free mammogram every

two years. CervicalCheck, Ireland’s National

Cervical Screening programme, provides free

smear tests to women aged 25 to 60. BowelScreen,

the National Bowel Screening programme, offers

a free home test to women and men aged 60-69

every two years. Its purpose is to detect changes in

the bowel before cancer develops. It can also help

detect cancer at an early stage, making it more

Abel and Newbigging (2018)50 argue that ‘gender

treatable47. Since April 2018, a number of failings

neutral approaches to service provision fail to

have come to light in relation to CervicalCheck,

recognise the specific needs of women’. SeeTable 2.3

because of a failed attempt to disclose the results

for details of some of the key gender differences

of a retrospective audit to a large group of women

in mental health.

44 National Cancer Intelligence Network. (2013). Outline of Uterine Cancer in the United Kingdom: Incidence, Mortality and Survival. Retrieved from: http://www.ncin.org.uk/view?rid=2398

45 Kogevinas M, Pearce N, Susser M, Boffetta P (1997) Social inequalities and cancer. Lyon: IARC, IARC Scientific Publications

46 National Cancer Registry Ireland. (2018). Cancer in Ireland 1994-2016 - With Estimates For 2016-2018: Annual Report Of the National Cancer Registry. Retrieved from: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/5331697-CANCER-IN-IRELAND-1994-2016-withestimates-for.html

47 The National Bowel Screening Service. (2012). Retrieved from: https://www.bowelscreen.ie/

48 Government of Ireland. (2006). A Vision for Change- Report of the Expert Group on Mental Health Policy. Retrieved from: https://www. hse.ie/eng/services/publications/mentalhealth/mental-health---a-vision-for-change.pdf

49 National Women’s Council of Ireland. (2018). Out of Silence- Women’s mental health in their own words. Retrieved from: https:// www.nwci.ie/images/uploads/Out_of_Silence_Report_-_NWCI_-_2018.pdf

50 Abel K M., Newbigging, K. (2018). Addressing unmet needs in women’s health. British Medical Association. Retrieved from:https:// www.bma.org.uk/collective-voice/policy-and-research/public-and-population-health/womens-health

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